Q.2: Comparative and Critical Analysis of Human Rights in Islam and UDHR

Islamic Concept of Human Rights

Islam grants human rights as divinely ordained, not state-conferred. These rights stem from Tawḥīd (oneness of Allah) and the inherent dignity of human beings. Hence, rights in Islam are permanent, universal, and morally binding.

Islam presents human rights as divinely ordained, rooted in Tawḥīd, whereas the UDHR (1948) is a man-made, secular framework shaped by Western liberal philosophy.

Islam guarantees fundamental rights such as life, dignity, equality, justice, religious freedom, and social welfare, but balances them with moral responsibility and accountability before Allah. Rights are not absolute; they operate within ethical limits to protect society.

The UDHR emphasizes individual autonomy, freedom of expression, and political rights but lacks a moral enforcement mechanism, making rights vulnerable to reinterpretation and misuse.

Critically, Islam integrates rights with duties, preventing moral relativism, while the UDHR prioritizes individual freedom even at the cost of social cohesion. Islam’s rights are permanent and universal, whereas UDHR rights are amendable and culturally contingent.

Key Islamic rights include:

  • Right to life, honor, and dignity
  • Equality before law
  • Freedom of belief (without coercion)
  • Social justice and welfare
  • Protection of minorities

Relevant Ayahs

Qur’an 17:70 – Human dignity granted by Allah

Quran 17:70 (Surah Al-Isra, Ayah 70) is a verse that highlights the inherent dignity, honor, and superior status bestowed upon humanity by God. It emphasizes the blessings of mobility, provision, and special preference over many other creations. 

Arabic Text (17:70)

وَلَقَدْ كَرَّمْنَا بَنِىٓ ءَادَمَ وَحَمَلْنَٰهُمْ فِى ٱلْبَرِّ وَٱلْبَحْرِ وَرَزَقْنَٰهُم مِّنَ ٱلطَّيِّبَٰتِ وَفَضَّلْنَٰهُمْ عَلَىٰ كَثِيرٍ مِّمَّنْ خَلَقْنَا تَفْضِيلًا

English Translation

“And We have certainly honored the children of Adam and carried them on the land and sea and provided for them of the good things and preferred them over much of what We have created, with [definite] preference.” — Saheeh International 

Key Themes and Interpretations

  • Dignity of Humanity (Karramna Bani Adam): The verse establishes that Allah has honored all children of Adam (human beings), regardless of faith, race, or gender, with a fundamental, God-given dignity.
  • Provision and Mobility: God provides transport (carrying them on land and sea) and sustenance (good and pure things), enabling humans to explore and thrive on Earth.
  • Superiority in Creation: Humans are granted a special status and preferred over “many of those whom We created,” due to faculties such as reason, free will, and the ability to distinguish truth.
  • Context: This verse comes within a passage discussing the responsibilities of mankind to recognize these blessings and to not be misled by Satan.

Context within Surah Al-Isra

  • 17:61-65: Discusses Iblis’s refusal to prostrate to Adam and his vow to mislead humanity.
  • 17:70: Reaffirms human dignity as a direct response to Satan’s arrogance, highlighting that despite human weakness, they are highly favored.
  • 17:71: Mentions the Day of Judgment, where everyone will be called with their record, emphasizing accountability.

Qur’an 5:32 – Sanctity of human life

whoever kills a person—unless in retribution for murder or spreading corruption—is as if they killed all mankind, while saving one life is equivalent to saving all humanity. It notes that despite messengers bringing clear proofs, many continued to transgress. 

Key Aspects of 5:32

  • Sanctity of Life: The verse declares that killing one innocent person is equivalent to killing all of humanity.
  • Exceptions: The prohibition does not apply in cases of legal retribution for murder or stopping someone from causing “mischief” (corruption) on earth.
  • Value of Saving a Life: Saving a single life is highlighted as a virtue equivalent to saving all of mankind.
  • Historical Context: This decree was ordained for the Children of Israel following the story of Cain and Abel, serving as a lesson against violence

Text (Translation):
“Because of that, We decreed upon the Children of Israel that whoever kills a soul—unless for a soul or for corruption [done] in the land—it is as if he had slain mankind entirely. And whoever saves one—it is as if he had saved mankind entirely…”

Qur’an 49:13 – Equality of mankind

establishes the Islamic principles of universal equality, human brotherhood, and piety. It states that all humanity was created from a single pair (male and female) and divided into nations and tribes to promote mutual knowledge and understanding, not discrimination. The most honorable in God’s sight is the most righteous

Key Themes and Interpretations:

  • Universal Equality: The verse addresses “O mankind” (or humanity), indicating a message for all, not just Muslims.
  • Purpose of Diversity: Nations and tribes are created to know one another, fostering unity and cooperation, rather than conflict or superiority based on lineage.
  • True Nobility (Taqwa): The only criterion for superiority in the sight of Allah is Taqwa (righteousness, piety, or God-consciousness), not wealth, race, or social status.
  • Condemnation of Prejudice: The verse is widely interpreted as a condemnation of tribalism, racism, and arrogance based on ancestral glory. 

According to translation by Saheeh International:
“O mankind, indeed We have created you from male and female and made you peoples and tribes that you may know one another. Indeed, the most noble of you in the sight of Allah is the most righteous of you. Indeed, Allah is Knowing and Acquainted.”

Qur’an 2:256 – No compulsion in religionn

Quran 2:256 (Surah Al-Baqarah) is a foundational verse declaring, “There is no compulsion in religion,” as truth stands clear from error. It emphasizes that faith must be a free choice, not forced. It states that rejecting false gods (taghut) and believing in Allah is a firm, unbreakable, and everlasting handhold.

Key Themes and Context of Verse 2:256:

  • No Forced Conversion: The verse explicitly prohibits forcing someone to accept Islam.
  • Clarity of Truth: The right path is distinct from error, making coercion unnecessary.
  • The “Firmest Handhold”: This metaphor refers to unwavering faith in Allah, which acts as a secure, everlasting protection.
  • Context of Revelation: Scholars indicate this was revealed regarding people in Medina (Ansar) who wanted to force their children to embrace Islam, prompting this prohibition.
  • Allah’s Knowledge: The verse concludes by stating that Allah is All-Hearing and All-Knowing.

The verse is widely cited to highlight the Islamic principle of freedom of conscience and the voluntary nature of faith.

Qur’an 4:135 – Command for absolute justice

Quran 4:135 (Surah An-Nisa) is a core verse in the Quran addressing justice, integrity, and truthful testimony. It calls on believers to uphold justice, even when it conflicts with their personal interests or the interests of loved ones.

This verse commands believers to stand firm in justice as witnesses for Allah, regardless of the consequences to themselves or their relatives. It emphasizes that personal inclination should not override fairness, and notes that Allah is fully aware of any distortion or refusal of testimony

Key Themes and Tafsir (Interpretation)

  • Absolute Justice: Believers are commanded to act as standard-bearers for justice, not just practice it themselves, but actively uphold it.
  • Testimony for Allah: Testimony should be solely to please God, not to gain personal advantage, or to favor friends or relatives.
  • Objectivity: Justice must be served even if the truth is damaging to oneself, one’s parents, or close relatives.
  • Rich vs. Poor: Social or financial status should not influence testimony, as God is the best protector of both.
  • Against Desires: Personal desire (lusts/caprice) must not cause one to deviate from the truth.
  • Warning: Distorting or refusing to provide truthful testimony is forbidden, and God is fully aware of such actions.

This verse is part of a broader section in Surat An-Nisa that emphasizes moral responsibility, the rights of the vulnerable, and the dangers of hypocrisy. It is widely cited in Islamic ethics as the ultimate standard for fairness. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights by the UN is also testamount to the fact that all human beings deserve to be treated fairly and without bias just as commanded by Allah SWT.

Relevant Ahadith

  1. “Your blood, wealth and honor are sacred…” (Farewell Sermon – Bukhari)
  2. “The most beloved to Allah are those who are most just.” (Ṭabarānī)

UDHR Framework

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) is a secular document, rooted in post-World War II Western liberal philosophy. It emphasizes:

  • Individual autonomy
  • Freedom of expression and belief
  • Political and civil liberties
  • Gender equality

Comparative Analysis

AspectIslamUDHR
SourceDivine revelationHuman consensus
NatureMoral + legalLegal only
PermanenceImmutableAmendable
Individual vs SocietyBalancedIndividual-centric

Critical Evaluation

  • Islam integrates rights with duties, preventing moral anarchy.
  • UDHR often lacks moral accountability, allowing misuse of freedoms.
  • Islam restricts rights when they harm collective good; UDHR prioritizes personal liberty even at social cost.

Conclusion

Islam offers a holistic human rights framework rooted in ethics, accountability, and social harmony, whereas UDHR remains procedural and secular, often detached from moral responsibility.

Q.3: Two-Nation Theory in Light of the Plight of Indian and Kashmiri Muslims

Historical Context

The Two-Nation Theory emerged from:

  • Systematic political marginalization of Muslims
  • Religious and cultural incompatibility
  • Majoritarian Hindu nationalism

Contemporary Validation

The plight of Indian and Kashmiri Muslims reinforces the theory’s relevance:

  • Abrogation of Article 370
  • Communal violence and lynchings
  • Suppression of religious freedoms
  • Demographic engineering in Kashmir

Islamic Perspective

Islam emphasizes:

  • Justice
  • Protection of faith
  • Collective identity of the Ummah

When a community’s religion, dignity, and survival are threatened, Islam allows political self-determination.

*You are to study and memorize the translation/transliteration of these Relevant Ayahs, like we did in Q2 above, and describe them properly in examination. Remember, DO NOT make things up if you don’t remember it.”

*You are to study and memorize the translation/transliteration of these Relevant Ayahs, like we did in Q2 above, and describe them properly in examination. Remember, DO NOT make things up if you don’t remember it.”

Relevant Ayahs

  1. Qur’an 22:39 – Permission to resist oppression
  2. Qur’an 4:75 – Obligation to defend the oppressed
  3. Qur’an 8:72 – Collective responsibility of believers
  4. Qur’an 3:110 – Moral responsibility of the Ummah

Relevant Ahadith

  1. “The believers are like one body…” (Muslim)
  2. “Help your brother whether he is oppressed or an oppressor.” (Bukhari)

Critical Insight

The Two-Nation Theory was not emotional but strategic, rooted in:

  • Diplomatic realism
  • Preservation of religious identity
  • Prevention of perpetual oppression

Conclusion

Events in India and Kashmir validate the Two-Nation Theory as a defensive, not divisive, doctrine aligned with Islamic principles of justice and survival.

Q.4: Western Influence on Islamic Civilization & Protective Measures

Western civilization has influenced Islamic societies through science, technology, governance, and education, contributing positively to material progress. Historically, Islam absorbed knowledge selectively, as seen during the Abbasid era.

However, negative influences include secularism, moral relativism, consumerism, erosion of family values, and cultural imperialism, which threaten Islamic identity.

Islam does not reject Western civilization outright but demands critical engagement. Protection lies in strengthening Islamic education, moral training (Ihsaan), family institutions, and media literacy.

Positive Influences

  • Scientific methodology
  • Administrative systems
  • Technology and education
  • Legal and governance reforms

Negative Influences

  • Secularism eroding faith
  • Moral relativism
  • Consumerism and materialism
  • Family disintegration
  • Cultural imperialism

Islamic Civilizational Response

Islam historically absorbed knowledge without surrendering identity, as seen in:

  • Translation movement
  • Scientific advancements under Abbasids
  • Ethical filtering of foreign ideas

Protective Measures

  • Strengthening Islamic education
  • Reviving Ihsaan (self-purification)
  • Media and cultural literacy
  • Family-centered social policies
  • Critical engagement, not blind imitation

Relevant Ayahs

  1. Qur’an 2:143 – Balanced Ummah
  2. Qur’an 31:6 – Warning against misleading influences
  3. Qur’an 16:125 – Wisdom and critical engagement
  4. Qur’an 3:110 – Moral leadership

Relevant Ahadith

  1. “Wisdom is the lost property of the believer.” (Tirmidhi)
  2. “Every nation has a trial; the trial of my Ummah is wealth.” (Tirmidhi)

Conclusion

Islam does not reject Western civilization wholesale but insists on selective assimilation, safeguarding moral and spiritual foundations.

Q.5: Rational Arguments for the Existence of Allah & Impacts of Monotheism

Belief in Tawḥīd transforms human life by instilling moral discipline, equality, accountability, inner peace, and freedom from material slavery.

Rational Arguments

  1. Cosmological Argument – Everything has a cause → First Cause (Allah)
  2. Teleological Argument – Order and design imply an intelligent Designer
  3. Moral Argument – Objective morality requires a moral Lawgiver
  4. Human Nature (Fiṭrah) – Innate belief in a higher power

Impact of Belief in Tawḥīd

  • Moral accountability
  • Inner peace and purpose
  • Equality of mankind
  • Freedom from material slavery
  • Ethical social order

Relevant Ayahs

  1. Qur’an 52:35–36 – Logical proof of creation
  2. Qur’an 21:30 – Origin of the universe
  3. Qur’an 30:30 – Human fiṭrah
  4. Qur’an 112:1–4 – Concept of Tawḥīd

Relevant Ahadith

  1. “Every child is born upon fiṭrah.” (Bukhari)
  2. “Be mindful of Allah and He will protect you.” (Tirmidhi)

Conclusion

Belief in Allah aligns reason, morality, and existence, producing balanced individuals and just societies.

Q.6: Accountability in Islam & Rashidun Caliphs as Ideal Models

Islam establishes accountability at individual, social, and state levels, grounded in belief in the Hereafter.

The Khulafā’ Rāshidīn set unparalleled standards:

  • Abu Bakr (RA): Accountability of leadership
  • Umar (RA): Equality before law, welfare state
  • Uthman (RA): Transparency
  • Ali (RA): Judicial impartiality, fairness, justice, transparency

Their governance reflected fear of Allah over fear of people.

Islamic Concept of Accountability

Accountability operates on three levels:

  1. Individual (before Allah)
  2. Social (mutual correction)
  3. State (rule of law)

Practices of Rashidun Caliphs

  • Abu Bakr (RA): Accountability even for leadership mistakes
  • Umar (RA): Public accountability, welfare checks, equality before law
  • Uthman (RA): Transparency in governance
  • Ali (RA): Judicial fairness even against personal interest

Relevant Ayahs

  1. Qur’an 99:7–8 – Accountability for deeds
  2. Qur’an 4:58 – Trust and justice
  3. Qur’an 17:36 – Responsibility of actions
  4. Qur’an 21:47 – Divine justice

Relevant Ahadith

  1. “Each of you is a shepherd…” (Bukhari)
  2. “The most just rulers will be closest to Allah.” (Muslim)

Significance

Their governance reflected:

  • Fear of Allah
  • Moral leadership
  • Justice over power

Conclusion

The Rashidun Caliphate set the highest ethical standard of accountability in human history.

Q.7: Sectarianism & Polarization in the Muslim World

Sectarianism stems from political exploitation, ignorance, foreign interference, and moral decline, not theology.

Islam strictly condemns division and promotes unity of the Ummah, moderation, dialogue, and justice. Solutions lie in Qur’an–Sunnah based education, inclusive governance, and revival of Ihsaan.

Causes

  • Political manipulation of sects
  • Ignorance of Islamic unity
  • External interference
  • Media propaganda
  • Decline of Ihsaan and ethics

Islamic Solutions

  • Emphasis on Ummah unity
  • Revival of Sunnah-based moderation
  • Dialogue over takfīr
  • Justice and inclusive governance
  • Education grounded in Qur’an and Seerah

Relevant Ayahs

  1. Qur’an 3:103 – Hold firmly together
  2. Qur’an 6:159 – Condemnation of sectarianism
  3. Qur’an 49:10 – Brotherhood of believers
  4. Qur’an 16:90 – Justice and balance

Relevant Ahadith

  1. “Do not hate one another…” (Muslim)
  2. “The believer to another believer is like a wall.” (Bukhari)

Conclusion

Sectarianism is political, not theological. Islam provides unity through shared faith, ethics, and accountability.

Q.8: Challenges to Family Institution & Islamic Response

Modern challenges to family include individualism, sexual liberalism, feminism without balance, digital alienation, and economic stress.

Islamic family structure emphasizes complementary gender roles, marriage, moral upbringing, respect for elders, and Ihsaan within relationships.

Modern Challenges

  • Individualism
  • Feminist extremism
  • Sexual liberalism
  • Digital alienation
  • Economic pressures

Islamic Family Model

  • Complementary gender roles
  • Mutual rights and duties
  • Moral upbringing
  • Marriage as social stability
  • Respect for elders

Protective Measures

  • Strengthening marriage culture
  • Islamic parenting
  • Media regulation
  • Moral education
  • Revival of Ihsaan within family

The Islamic family system remains the most resilient social institution, capable of safeguarding society against moral collapse.

Relevant Ayahs

  1. Qur’an 30:21 – Marriage as tranquility
  2. Qur’an 4:1 – Family as social foundation
  3. Qur’an 66:6 – Moral responsibility of family
  4. Qur’an 17:23 – Respect for parents

Relevant Ahadith

  1. “The best of you are the best to their families.” (Tirmidhi)
  2. “Marriage is part of my Sunnah.” (Ibn Mājah)

Conclusion

The Islamic family system remains the most resilient social institution, capable of addressing modern challenges through faith and balance.